Second/Foreign Language Immersion
and At-Risk English-Speaking Children

Recently, there have been many comments circulating in the media relating to the immersion program. One of the questions being asked is whether immersion programs are suitable for various sorts of at-risk students. Fred Genesee's 1992 article entitled "Second/ foreign language immersion and at-risk English- speaking children" presents pivotal research relating to this issue. The following is a summary of the article's main points. The original article appeared in Volume 25, number 3 of the Foreign Language Annals.

"It is common for students who might face problems in school to abstain from enrolling in immersion [those programs]. The elitism that results is undesirable because it threatens to sour the relationship between different sectors of the educational community" (p. 200)

Five characteristics were used to examine research on learners in immersion settings that may be regarded as disadvantaged:

  • Intelligence
  • First Language ability
  • Socio-economic status
  • Ethnic group status
  • Age

    INTELLIGENCE:
    IQ tests are often used to measure intelligence despite controversy surrounding their validity. Not surprisingly below-average students scored lower on Math and English test than average or above-average. Of note is that below-average immersion students did not score significantly different from below average students in the English stream. Also of interest is the fact students of below-average IQ scored lower on literacy- based skills such as reading and writing but scored the same as average and above-average on interpersonal communication skills such as listening comprehension and speaking. IQ seems to play more of a role in older language learners than younger ones. Intelligence is not seen by many researchers as a good predictor of language achievement.

    In related research dealing with immersion drop-outs, Bruck (1985) found that those who stayed in immersion have no lower achievement than those who have dropped out and entered the English stream. She concluded that their problems were not specific to immersion.

    In fact, research has shown that bilingualism has a positive effect on a child's development. Researchers point to cognitive advantages to studying a second language such as cognitive flexibility, creativity, metalinguistic awareness. Research also has shown that academic achievement is not impaired by learning through another language and other studies have shown that English development of students in French immersion is often superior to that of non-immersion children.

    FIRST LANGUAGE ABILITY
    In general it is thought that the ability of children to acquire a first language prior to school is important for success in school. Bruck's (1982) research concluded that language disabled children ("…a group who despite physical well-being and normal intelligence and a healthy personality acquire first language with painful slowness…" p.205) required more time to acquire skills in both programs. Linguistic, cognitive and academic skills developed at similar rates in both programs. Language disabled students showed good progress in French in that they learned to communicate in their second language. Bruck concluded that language disabled students can benefit from immersion programs and should not be excluded from them. They may not do as well in language programs focusing on grammar and rules but they experience success in communicative-based programs. They do not experience additional difficulty due to the immersion setting.

    SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS
    Research shows that working class immersion students scored as well as comparison groups on English tests once the English curriculum in the immersion program had been established (grade 5 or 6). Middle class students in immersion obtained same results as middle class in non-immersion. Working class students scored lower than middle class in both immersion and non-immersion programs thus showing evidence that under-achievement is related to socioeconomic status. Immersion and non-immersion students from socio-economically disadvantaged backgrounds obtained similar results on English, math and science tests. Working class students scored as well on French achievement tests related to listening comprehension and speaking as middle-class students although reading scores were somewhat lower. Based on these and other findings, the research shows no detrimental effects of immersion on those from a lower socio-economic background and indeed is evidence of some positive effects of this program for this type of at-risk student.

    ETHNIC GROUP STATUS
    Are immersion programs appropriate for students whose first language is one other than those used in the school system or those who do not do as well in the North American public school context? Research with Mohawk children in French immersion showed that they performed less well than their English counterparts on English tests at the end of grade 3 but were able to do almost as well (except in spelling and capitalization) by the end of grade 4. They demonstrated no difficulties on the math tests. Other research showed that African American students in immersion did as well as their peers in the English program. In addition the African American children did as well on the oral and comprehension aspects of French language as their white classmates. It has been concluded based on the studies presented in this article, that immersion programs do not cause deficits in English language development or academic achievement in minority language (other than French and English) children and in fact, this immersion opportunity gives these marginalized groups the same benefits as their more advantaged white peers.

    AGE
    Is immersion more effective for some age groups more than others? The research is not consistent in this area. In general there is no proof that language acquisition happens more effectively at one age over another although it is generally believed that the language acquisition process can happen more easily and quickly between birth and puberty. The research results related to French language achievement of students enrolled in immersion programs beginning at varying ages is not consistent. In one group of studies, it was found that early immersion students outperformed late-immersion students on a variety of French language tests. In a Genesee study, it was discovered that late immersion students attained an average level on a variety of French language tests after 2 1/2 years of language study whereas early immersion students after 2 1/2 years achieved a below-average rating on similar tests geared for that age-group. In later studies, it was found that older students can attain the same French language proficiency levels as those who began at a younger age. The hypothesis relating to older learners is that their maturity and motivation help them to reach desired levels of competency. In general it has been found that language immersion can be effective for learners of a variety of ages.

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